N.T. Wright, Evil and the Justice of God, (London: SPCK, 2006)
p46 ‘Theologies of the cross, of how God deals with sin through the death of Jesus, have not normally grappled with the larger problem of evil, as I set it out in the first chapter. Conversely, most people who have written about ‘the problem of evil’ within philosophical theology have not normally grappled sufficiently with the cross as part of both the analysis and the solution of that problem. The two have been held apart, in a mis-match, with ‘the problem of evil’ on the one hand being conceived simply in terms of ‘how could a good and powerful God allow evil into the world in the first place?’, and the atonement on the other hand being seen in terms simply of personal forgiveness, of the various categories set out movingly if ultimately inadequately in the hymn, ‘There is a green hill far away’.
Friday, 9 July 2010
some background on the new perspective(s) on Paul
Here is some easy background on the new perspective(s) on Paul:
article by NTWright on justification.
a new perspective introduction and summary
Wikipedia on E.P.Sanders and 'covenantal nomism'
article by NTWright on justification.
a new perspective introduction and summary
Wikipedia on E.P.Sanders and 'covenantal nomism'
Wright vs Piper
Friday, 26 March 2010
book review: Barry and Connolly,
Book Review:
William A Barry & William J. Connolly, The Practice of Spiritual Direction, (New York: Seabury Press, 1982)
First published in 1982, The Practice of Spiritual Direction was written by two of the six Jesuit founders of the Center for Religious Development in Massachusetts, USA. The book has three parts and a total of twelve chapters. Part one serves to introduce spiritual direction; part two focuses on the process of spiritual direction; part three addresses the question of how one becomes a spiritual director and how one can develop in this role.
Part One
As might be expected, the Preface seeks to set the book’s core issue as well as situation the area in contemporary society. I think one of the strengths of the book is its clear focus and this emerges in its first pages. The authors will not address the question of what people’s spiritual lives should look like, but rather what they are actually like in practice (p.viii). The centrality of religious experience is developed in chapter two where Barry and Connolly refer to Peter Berger, Karl Rahner and Bernard Lonergan for a theoretical framework, whereby theology begins ‘not with the God who reveals, but with the human being and his human experience’ (p.19). In a short review of this kind, it is clearly not possible to pursue the theoretical questions raised here. In broad terms, I think human experience is a valid starting point whether or not we accept Berger’s approach in its totality. As the authors observe, the ‘shift to interiority’ has been a widespread theological trend in recent times.
Part Two
Barry and Connolly, as I mentioned above, are very clear that the relationship between directee and God is at the centre of spiritual direction. They emphasise the dialogical nature of the spiritual relationship and discuss obstacles to the interaction of the directee with God. The integration of emotions into our prayer life is seen to be a very positive development. One issue on which I was not wholly convinced was their separation of spiritual direction from other ministries such as moral guidance. Barry and Connolly insist that, although moral guidance is a valid and necessary ministry of the church, it should be exercised separately from spiritual direction (p.43). In a later chapter, they discuss the (presumably imagined) case of a married woman who is verging on adultery. They propose that, ‘It is laudable to want to prevent infidelity in marriage, but spiritual directors have to leave that purpose to others’ (p.142). The authors obviously want to be absolutely clear about the focus of spiritual direction but I think this proposal goes too far in separating this ministry from others in the church. It seems to be based on the assumption that directees will be in relationship with others who could offer this moral guidance but this is not always the case. I wonder if this is an area in which the authors have been too influenced by secular models of therapeutic relationships. I applaud their concern to define spiritual direction distinctly Christian and I suggest that this means that it cannot be compartmentalised in such a way that moral guidance is excluded in certain pressing circumstances (such as the imminent threat of adultery).
I find the emphasis on contemplation very helpful. This is defined as ‘an experience of, transcendence – that is, of forgetfulness of self and of everyone and everything else except the contemplated object’ (p.49). The authors discuss two obstacles to contemplation: ‘the prior categories that often make it next to impossible to see and hear any ‘other’ in his or her or its own right’ and ‘our tendency to look inward rather than outward’ (p.48). I think one of the strengths of this book is its rootedness in real experience combined with a plausible theoretical framework. For instance, in this section, Barry and Connolly give two simple questions which the director can ask: ‘Do you listen to the Lord when you pray?’ and ‘Are you telling him how listening to him makes you feel?’. The inclusion of concrete examples such as these (as well as much longer example dialogues) gives the book a very practical dimension.
The authors are concerned to investigate obstacles to the development of people’s prayer lives. They address the issue of resistance where something within the directee refuses to co-operate. Resistance can manifest itself in ‘discouragement, boredom and depression’ (p.81) or a ‘constantly cheery, emotionally unnuanced experience of prayer’ (p.81). Human beings organise their experience in conceptual frameworks and the serious disruption of these can cause anxiety. We need such frameworks but they can also prevent us from developing. Barry and Connolly offer a significant and very practical insight when they say that ‘traditional spirituality’ may not help us to move forwards because it can set the bar too high, so-to-speak. Instead, the authors speak of the need to inch forwards in order to experience transformation (p.97).
The subjective focus of the book again becomes clear in the chapter on evaluating religious experience. The authors observe that many people ‘have a touchstone experience of God’ (p.103), according to which they judge other experiences. This may not be a very satisfying criterion to the systematic theologian but it seems to me practical and realistic. On the other hand, Barry and Connolly also discuss the fruits of the Spirit as described by the Apostle Paul in Galatians 5:22 which, they claim, ‘come about not singly, but together’ (p110). In discussing people’s openness to change and difference, the authors offer Jesus Christ as a supreme example: ‘This experience of the reality and uncontrollability of the Other reaches its peak in the experience of Jesus as a person who cares for others and for the world’ (p.111). This criterion raises the question of whether a stronger christological approach might not be both possible and beneficial. As I have said, I accept the need for a subjective focus but I think that the model of Christ could be applied more consistently. For instance, the Gethsemane prayer seems to me worth exploring in the context of spiritual direction.
Part Three
A fairly demanding list of requirements for spiritual directors is proposed: maturity, ‘surplus of warmth’; ‘love for people as they are’; knowledge of the Bible, modern theology, the history of spirituality and modern psychology (pp.123-133). The authors strike a sensible balance between the natural and supernatural aspects of spiritual direction. They suggest spiritual directors borrow ‘with gratitude concepts and practice from the psychological fields’ but without compromising the distinctness of spiritual direction from other helping relationships.
Barry and Connolly demonstrate an awareness of psychotherapy in their discussion of ‘disturbances’ which can interfere with the director-directee relationship. In their discussion of ‘transference’ and ‘countertransference’, they bring out the implications of the distinctive character of spiritual direction: ‘in spiritual direction all transference reactions of directees should occur in the relationship with the Lord, not in the relationship with the director’ (pp.162-3). Chapter eleven applies the now familiar approach to the subject of director supervision: ‘The purpose of supervision is the becoming of a spiritual director.’
In conclusion, I think The Practice of Spiritual Direction is a very good introduction to this subject. It is clearly rooted in the experience of spiritual direction and so addresses practical issues. The book seems to me firmly situated in both contemporary psychotherapy and theology. It has a clear focus which brings helpful definition to the subject. While engaging with other disciples, Barry and Connolly confidently affirm the spiritual nature of this helping relationship and avoid importing procedures from secular models in an uncritical way. I have reservations about the compartmentalising of spiritual direction. I think that separating it too much from other ministries of the church (such as moral guidance) could cause significant problems and be difficult to defend on ethical grounds. While I agree with the focus on subjectivity, I think that the pattern of Christ’s life offers extremely helpful insights for spiritual direction. I am not convinced that spiritual directors should not focus a little more on normative examples of prayer such as in the lives of Christ and the Apostle Paul. Overall, though, I found this a very helpful, thorough and informative work.
William A Barry & William J. Connolly, The Practice of Spiritual Direction, (New York: Seabury Press, 1982)
First published in 1982, The Practice of Spiritual Direction was written by two of the six Jesuit founders of the Center for Religious Development in Massachusetts, USA. The book has three parts and a total of twelve chapters. Part one serves to introduce spiritual direction; part two focuses on the process of spiritual direction; part three addresses the question of how one becomes a spiritual director and how one can develop in this role.
Part One
As might be expected, the Preface seeks to set the book’s core issue as well as situation the area in contemporary society. I think one of the strengths of the book is its clear focus and this emerges in its first pages. The authors will not address the question of what people’s spiritual lives should look like, but rather what they are actually like in practice (p.viii). The centrality of religious experience is developed in chapter two where Barry and Connolly refer to Peter Berger, Karl Rahner and Bernard Lonergan for a theoretical framework, whereby theology begins ‘not with the God who reveals, but with the human being and his human experience’ (p.19). In a short review of this kind, it is clearly not possible to pursue the theoretical questions raised here. In broad terms, I think human experience is a valid starting point whether or not we accept Berger’s approach in its totality. As the authors observe, the ‘shift to interiority’ has been a widespread theological trend in recent times.
Part Two
Barry and Connolly, as I mentioned above, are very clear that the relationship between directee and God is at the centre of spiritual direction. They emphasise the dialogical nature of the spiritual relationship and discuss obstacles to the interaction of the directee with God. The integration of emotions into our prayer life is seen to be a very positive development. One issue on which I was not wholly convinced was their separation of spiritual direction from other ministries such as moral guidance. Barry and Connolly insist that, although moral guidance is a valid and necessary ministry of the church, it should be exercised separately from spiritual direction (p.43). In a later chapter, they discuss the (presumably imagined) case of a married woman who is verging on adultery. They propose that, ‘It is laudable to want to prevent infidelity in marriage, but spiritual directors have to leave that purpose to others’ (p.142). The authors obviously want to be absolutely clear about the focus of spiritual direction but I think this proposal goes too far in separating this ministry from others in the church. It seems to be based on the assumption that directees will be in relationship with others who could offer this moral guidance but this is not always the case. I wonder if this is an area in which the authors have been too influenced by secular models of therapeutic relationships. I applaud their concern to define spiritual direction distinctly Christian and I suggest that this means that it cannot be compartmentalised in such a way that moral guidance is excluded in certain pressing circumstances (such as the imminent threat of adultery).
I find the emphasis on contemplation very helpful. This is defined as ‘an experience of, transcendence – that is, of forgetfulness of self and of everyone and everything else except the contemplated object’ (p.49). The authors discuss two obstacles to contemplation: ‘the prior categories that often make it next to impossible to see and hear any ‘other’ in his or her or its own right’ and ‘our tendency to look inward rather than outward’ (p.48). I think one of the strengths of this book is its rootedness in real experience combined with a plausible theoretical framework. For instance, in this section, Barry and Connolly give two simple questions which the director can ask: ‘Do you listen to the Lord when you pray?’ and ‘Are you telling him how listening to him makes you feel?’. The inclusion of concrete examples such as these (as well as much longer example dialogues) gives the book a very practical dimension.
The authors are concerned to investigate obstacles to the development of people’s prayer lives. They address the issue of resistance where something within the directee refuses to co-operate. Resistance can manifest itself in ‘discouragement, boredom and depression’ (p.81) or a ‘constantly cheery, emotionally unnuanced experience of prayer’ (p.81). Human beings organise their experience in conceptual frameworks and the serious disruption of these can cause anxiety. We need such frameworks but they can also prevent us from developing. Barry and Connolly offer a significant and very practical insight when they say that ‘traditional spirituality’ may not help us to move forwards because it can set the bar too high, so-to-speak. Instead, the authors speak of the need to inch forwards in order to experience transformation (p.97).
The subjective focus of the book again becomes clear in the chapter on evaluating religious experience. The authors observe that many people ‘have a touchstone experience of God’ (p.103), according to which they judge other experiences. This may not be a very satisfying criterion to the systematic theologian but it seems to me practical and realistic. On the other hand, Barry and Connolly also discuss the fruits of the Spirit as described by the Apostle Paul in Galatians 5:22 which, they claim, ‘come about not singly, but together’ (p110). In discussing people’s openness to change and difference, the authors offer Jesus Christ as a supreme example: ‘This experience of the reality and uncontrollability of the Other reaches its peak in the experience of Jesus as a person who cares for others and for the world’ (p.111). This criterion raises the question of whether a stronger christological approach might not be both possible and beneficial. As I have said, I accept the need for a subjective focus but I think that the model of Christ could be applied more consistently. For instance, the Gethsemane prayer seems to me worth exploring in the context of spiritual direction.
Part Three
A fairly demanding list of requirements for spiritual directors is proposed: maturity, ‘surplus of warmth’; ‘love for people as they are’; knowledge of the Bible, modern theology, the history of spirituality and modern psychology (pp.123-133). The authors strike a sensible balance between the natural and supernatural aspects of spiritual direction. They suggest spiritual directors borrow ‘with gratitude concepts and practice from the psychological fields’ but without compromising the distinctness of spiritual direction from other helping relationships.
Barry and Connolly demonstrate an awareness of psychotherapy in their discussion of ‘disturbances’ which can interfere with the director-directee relationship. In their discussion of ‘transference’ and ‘countertransference’, they bring out the implications of the distinctive character of spiritual direction: ‘in spiritual direction all transference reactions of directees should occur in the relationship with the Lord, not in the relationship with the director’ (pp.162-3). Chapter eleven applies the now familiar approach to the subject of director supervision: ‘The purpose of supervision is the becoming of a spiritual director.’
In conclusion, I think The Practice of Spiritual Direction is a very good introduction to this subject. It is clearly rooted in the experience of spiritual direction and so addresses practical issues. The book seems to me firmly situated in both contemporary psychotherapy and theology. It has a clear focus which brings helpful definition to the subject. While engaging with other disciples, Barry and Connolly confidently affirm the spiritual nature of this helping relationship and avoid importing procedures from secular models in an uncritical way. I have reservations about the compartmentalising of spiritual direction. I think that separating it too much from other ministries of the church (such as moral guidance) could cause significant problems and be difficult to defend on ethical grounds. While I agree with the focus on subjectivity, I think that the pattern of Christ’s life offers extremely helpful insights for spiritual direction. I am not convinced that spiritual directors should not focus a little more on normative examples of prayer such as in the lives of Christ and the Apostle Paul. Overall, though, I found this a very helpful, thorough and informative work.
book review: Margaret Guenther, Holy Listening
Book Review
Margaret Guenther, Holy Listening: The Art of Spiritual Direction, (London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1992)
Margaret Guenther is Professor Emerita of Ascetical Theology at General Theological Seminary where she served previously as director of the Center for Christian Spirituality. Between the introduction and epilogue are four chapters. Spiritual direction is explored in terms of three metaphors: hospitality, teaching and midwifery. Chapter four deals with the area of women and spiritual direction. Guenther writes from the perspective of a woman (p.3), a teacher (p.4) and an Episcopal priest (p.4). I think that her background is particularly important because of her book’s rootedness in her own and her directees’ contexts.
Spiritual Direction as Hospitality
Guenther’s is ‘This is a book by an amateur, written for amateurs.' (p.1). This is a point she returns to in the epilogue where she says that love lies at the heart of the amateur’s work (p.145). Guenther repeatedly makes distinctions between the spiritual direction and other helping activities. She resists the ‘professionalisation’ of spiritual direction: ‘the peril lies in turning the directees – our guests ... into ‘cases’.’ (p.10). In doing so, I think Guenther secures spiritual direction within the context of the church – the family of God. However, she does so in such a way that the role of psychotherapy (and other related therapies) is valued but distinguished.
The book includes some of the ‘nuts and bolts’ of spiritual direction. For example, in this first chapter Guenther suggests that beginning with silence is appropriate (p.16). At the same time, the metaphor is gradually developed and its usefulness for spiritual direction spelled out. Direction offers a ‘safe space’ (p.14). The director concentrates her / his attention on the directee. Preparations are made. However, the metaphor offers a loose framework and there is freedom to offer observations which, while related, do not necessarily flow directly from the main idea. For example, Guenther’s comment that, ‘The director's task is to help connect the individual's story to the story and thereby help the directee to recognise and claim his identity in Christ’ (p.31) connects with the theme of hospitality (for hosts guests tell stories and explore each others’ lives) without, perhaps, being part of the core activity. The metaphor of hospitality underlines one of the differences between spiritual direction and psychotherapy and this is perhaps one reason why she begins here: ‘This willingness towards self-disclosure is one of the primary distinctions between spiritual direction and psychotherapy. The mutuality of the former is an essential characteristic of the relationship' (p.35).
Spiritual Director as Teacher
It seems to me that clarity is one of Guenther’s strengths. For instance, in analysing the discernment function of the spiritual director, she breaks the process down into two stages: perception and judgment (pp.44-45). While the listening role of the spiritual director does not immediately seem to fit the teaching metaphor, Guenther makes clear that she is following Thomas Merton’s facilitator-model of teaching and this brings coherence to her account.
Once more, spiritual direction is distinguished from psychotherapy since Guenther argues that ‘To know in truth ... is to allow one’s self to be known’ (p.58). I would have welcomed a little more of a theoretical framework for this assertion. Does the author have in mind a kind of Buberian or Barthian epistemology? Again, I think the metaphor works well for teachers allow themselves to be known as well as seeking to know their students. Guenther lists a number of characteristics common to both good teachers and good spiritual directors: they encourage play, they know their pupils’ / directees’ limits, they are hopeful, they educate for maturity, they ask good questions, they evaluate progress, they are vulnerable, they are themselves learners. I would have welcomed some biblical perspective on these attributes. For example, which of these characteristics do we see in the life of Jesus (or the Apostle Paul) – and how are they manifested? However, it may be unfair to have such expectations of a book of this length and I assume Guenther was very aware of what she could achieve (and not achieve) in such a work. The author does accept that the model of Jesus can be used in spiritual direction (p.72). Guenther is clear about the need for a holistic approach (p.79) and that spiritual directors must learn to be comfortable with silence, ambiguity and darkness (p.81). Both emphases seem to flow naturally from the author’s commitment to beginning from the directee’s actual experience.
Spritual Director as Midwife
The final metaphor explored is that of midwifery. This seems to me a very vivid and helpful image in a number of ways: Guenther spells out the connections. Firstly, she suggests – I think fairly convincingly - that God is described as midwife in Psalm 22:9-10. Guenther argues that midwives are involved at a more personal level than doctors and that childbirth is a fundamentally natural process (pp.89-90). The midwife works with not on the birthgiver (p.90). The process of birthgiving is compared to the process of bringing about a new life in the Spirit. There is a period of waiting (p.91); a stage of transition (p.103); and finally the birth itself. I think one of the strengths of this metaphor is the implicit suggestion that spiritual directors must wait for the timing of a natural process. Guenther’s critique of contemporary society as having a ‘quick fix’ culture is accurate and far-reaching, in my view. I think Guenther’s final point is also a significant acknowledgment of the centrality of divine activity in the process of spiritual direction: ‘For spiritual directors the Holy Spirit is the true director.’
Women and Spiritual Direction
I think Guenther strikes a fair balance by speaking as a woman and asserting female difference without seeking to achieve these objectives at the expense of men’s contributions: ‘I am convinced that women function differently as directors – not better, nor worse, but differently.’ Having said this, she is not afraid to point out that women may have advantages in the area of spiritual direction and that maternal or feminine imagery offer helpful perspectives. I was interested by Guenther’s description of women’s sin-configuration. She argues that women are more easily tempted by self-contempt than by pride (p.135). Furthermore, victims of incest and other kinds of sexual sin often have a distinctive spirituality in Guenther’s view. As ever, she is concerned with asking very grounded questions such as ‘‘Where was God when this was happening to you? Where is God now? Do you feel angry with God?’’
In conclusion, Guenther’s concern is that ‘the story gets told’ (p.149). Spiritual direction can enable the restoration of the directee’s story within the large Christian story. It is likened to the ‘living out of intercessory prayer’ (p.150) when the ‘holy listener’ waits for the directee’s encounter with the risen Christ. Guenther’s book is a very effective exploration of this encounter in terms of three rich metaphors together with concrete, practical advice and insights into the soaring potential of spiritual direction.
Margaret Guenther, Holy Listening: The Art of Spiritual Direction, (London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1992)
Margaret Guenther is Professor Emerita of Ascetical Theology at General Theological Seminary where she served previously as director of the Center for Christian Spirituality. Between the introduction and epilogue are four chapters. Spiritual direction is explored in terms of three metaphors: hospitality, teaching and midwifery. Chapter four deals with the area of women and spiritual direction. Guenther writes from the perspective of a woman (p.3), a teacher (p.4) and an Episcopal priest (p.4). I think that her background is particularly important because of her book’s rootedness in her own and her directees’ contexts.
Spiritual Direction as Hospitality
Guenther’s is ‘This is a book by an amateur, written for amateurs.' (p.1). This is a point she returns to in the epilogue where she says that love lies at the heart of the amateur’s work (p.145). Guenther repeatedly makes distinctions between the spiritual direction and other helping activities. She resists the ‘professionalisation’ of spiritual direction: ‘the peril lies in turning the directees – our guests ... into ‘cases’.’ (p.10). In doing so, I think Guenther secures spiritual direction within the context of the church – the family of God. However, she does so in such a way that the role of psychotherapy (and other related therapies) is valued but distinguished.
The book includes some of the ‘nuts and bolts’ of spiritual direction. For example, in this first chapter Guenther suggests that beginning with silence is appropriate (p.16). At the same time, the metaphor is gradually developed and its usefulness for spiritual direction spelled out. Direction offers a ‘safe space’ (p.14). The director concentrates her / his attention on the directee. Preparations are made. However, the metaphor offers a loose framework and there is freedom to offer observations which, while related, do not necessarily flow directly from the main idea. For example, Guenther’s comment that, ‘The director's task is to help connect the individual's story to the story and thereby help the directee to recognise and claim his identity in Christ’ (p.31) connects with the theme of hospitality (for hosts guests tell stories and explore each others’ lives) without, perhaps, being part of the core activity. The metaphor of hospitality underlines one of the differences between spiritual direction and psychotherapy and this is perhaps one reason why she begins here: ‘This willingness towards self-disclosure is one of the primary distinctions between spiritual direction and psychotherapy. The mutuality of the former is an essential characteristic of the relationship' (p.35).
Spiritual Director as Teacher
It seems to me that clarity is one of Guenther’s strengths. For instance, in analysing the discernment function of the spiritual director, she breaks the process down into two stages: perception and judgment (pp.44-45). While the listening role of the spiritual director does not immediately seem to fit the teaching metaphor, Guenther makes clear that she is following Thomas Merton’s facilitator-model of teaching and this brings coherence to her account.
Once more, spiritual direction is distinguished from psychotherapy since Guenther argues that ‘To know in truth ... is to allow one’s self to be known’ (p.58). I would have welcomed a little more of a theoretical framework for this assertion. Does the author have in mind a kind of Buberian or Barthian epistemology? Again, I think the metaphor works well for teachers allow themselves to be known as well as seeking to know their students. Guenther lists a number of characteristics common to both good teachers and good spiritual directors: they encourage play, they know their pupils’ / directees’ limits, they are hopeful, they educate for maturity, they ask good questions, they evaluate progress, they are vulnerable, they are themselves learners. I would have welcomed some biblical perspective on these attributes. For example, which of these characteristics do we see in the life of Jesus (or the Apostle Paul) – and how are they manifested? However, it may be unfair to have such expectations of a book of this length and I assume Guenther was very aware of what she could achieve (and not achieve) in such a work. The author does accept that the model of Jesus can be used in spiritual direction (p.72). Guenther is clear about the need for a holistic approach (p.79) and that spiritual directors must learn to be comfortable with silence, ambiguity and darkness (p.81). Both emphases seem to flow naturally from the author’s commitment to beginning from the directee’s actual experience.
Spritual Director as Midwife
The final metaphor explored is that of midwifery. This seems to me a very vivid and helpful image in a number of ways: Guenther spells out the connections. Firstly, she suggests – I think fairly convincingly - that God is described as midwife in Psalm 22:9-10. Guenther argues that midwives are involved at a more personal level than doctors and that childbirth is a fundamentally natural process (pp.89-90). The midwife works with not on the birthgiver (p.90). The process of birthgiving is compared to the process of bringing about a new life in the Spirit. There is a period of waiting (p.91); a stage of transition (p.103); and finally the birth itself. I think one of the strengths of this metaphor is the implicit suggestion that spiritual directors must wait for the timing of a natural process. Guenther’s critique of contemporary society as having a ‘quick fix’ culture is accurate and far-reaching, in my view. I think Guenther’s final point is also a significant acknowledgment of the centrality of divine activity in the process of spiritual direction: ‘For spiritual directors the Holy Spirit is the true director.’
Women and Spiritual Direction
I think Guenther strikes a fair balance by speaking as a woman and asserting female difference without seeking to achieve these objectives at the expense of men’s contributions: ‘I am convinced that women function differently as directors – not better, nor worse, but differently.’ Having said this, she is not afraid to point out that women may have advantages in the area of spiritual direction and that maternal or feminine imagery offer helpful perspectives. I was interested by Guenther’s description of women’s sin-configuration. She argues that women are more easily tempted by self-contempt than by pride (p.135). Furthermore, victims of incest and other kinds of sexual sin often have a distinctive spirituality in Guenther’s view. As ever, she is concerned with asking very grounded questions such as ‘‘Where was God when this was happening to you? Where is God now? Do you feel angry with God?’’
In conclusion, Guenther’s concern is that ‘the story gets told’ (p.149). Spiritual direction can enable the restoration of the directee’s story within the large Christian story. It is likened to the ‘living out of intercessory prayer’ (p.150) when the ‘holy listener’ waits for the directee’s encounter with the risen Christ. Guenther’s book is a very effective exploration of this encounter in terms of three rich metaphors together with concrete, practical advice and insights into the soaring potential of spiritual direction.
book review: Martin Thornton, Spiritual Direction: a practical introduction
Book Review:
Martin Thornton, Spiritual Direction: a practical introduction, (London: SPCK, 1984)
Martin Thornton (1915-1986) was an Anglican priest, spiritual director, and an author and lecturer on ascetical theology. This work on spiritual direction demonstrates particularly strong emphases on the importance of theological expertise together with professionalism in spiritual direction. Thornton hopes the book will represent 'an extended syllabus covering the range of studies required for competent direction' (p.ix). In chapter one, he cites Anthony Russell's The Clerical Profession which characterises the process of professionalisation in four factors: 'the basis of theoretical, esoteric knowledge'; 'professional educational and social institutions'; internal 'control over recruitment, training, dress and behaviour'; 'its own ethical system'. Thornton's vision of spiritual direction is a world away from Guenther's homely paradigms and one wonders whether the author is not reacting against the clergy's fall in prestige in twentieth century society. While it is certainly important for the church to listen to society's view, I think the Christian faith community must set its own agenda and not be overly concerned to meet what seem to be fundamentally secular criteria of professionalism. Thornton's concerns may be exacerbated by his position of priest in an established church; other denominations and church networks may find it easier to take a sceptical view society's expectations.
In chapter two, entitled 'The ambulance syndrome', Thornton suggests that we must resist the view that spiritual direction is basically therapeutic. Rather, direction is 'the creative cultivation of charismata; the gifts and graces that all have received' (p.10). Despite my criticism of Thornton's concern for professionalism, he is clear on the need for a theological approach to direction. For example, he is willing to accept the straightforward assertion of theological points by directors, even at the risk of paternalism (p.11). Similarly, suffering should not - indeed, cannot - be see in a purely humanistic light but as 'something to be interpreted and creatively redeemed' (p.12). Related to Thornton's concern for professionalism is his desire for objectivity (p.14). Of all the qualities necessary in a director, learning tops the list in Thornton's view. It seems to me that specifying one requirement above the others probably does more harm than good but if this must be done, I would suggest love over learning. It is interesting that Guenther links love with amateurism and suggests that it lies at the heart of direction (Guenther p.145). Such a model of direction bases itself on 1 Corinthians 13 - a more solid foundation than scholarship.
Three analogies are discussed in connection with the directorial relationship. Firstly, the director is 'physician of the soul' (p.24). While the analogy has some merit, I prefer Guenther's midwife imagery because it suggests a more collaborative relationship and one in which something natural is taking place and where the director is less of a primary agent. Analogies which preserve a central place for divine agency are more appropriate. The second analogy is that of askesis. Here the director is like the sports coach who forms a relationship with the athlete: 'a partnership aimed at a common purpose: run to win' (p.27). This is a more satisfactory analogy in which the director is not centre stage. Thirdly, Thornton discusses 'nuptial analogy' - referring to the church as the Bride of Christ. While this imagery clearly has a very solid scriptural basis, Thornton does not spell out exactly how the director fits in - indeed s/he might be something of a 'gooseberry' in this analogy. He wants to convey the 'domestic' aspect of the directorial relationship but I think that Guenther's host analogy is much more coherent and fruitful.
The notion of analysis in spiritual direction is clearly important to Thornton, as demonstrated by his entitling chapter five of this book 'Love on the slab'! The directee (or 'client' in Thornton's more professional terminology) seeking guidance must first be placed 'on a stone cold slab, to be analysed, classified, sorted out and generally pulled to pieces' (p.30). I am not sure this is a helpful image but, to take a positive view of this approach, Thornton wishes to respect the individuality of his client and to understand him or her on a deep level, while doing so in the context of traditional categories within ascetical theology. The client can be understood in terms of two sets of opposing characteristics. The speculative and affective categories 'broadly distinguish the intellectual and the emotional' (p.32). Secondly, clients may fall into 'world-affirming' or 'world-renouncing' classifications (respectively, kataphatic and apophatic). The first of these reflects 'a wide sacramentalism, with a full-blooded acceptance of the human body and its senses: grace perfects nature' (p.35). For world-renouncing clients 'material creatures are not evil, they are a nuisance that get in the way. It is the via negativa' (p.36). In relation to these basic distinctions, Thornton borrows a term from Baron von Hügel - 'attrait' which 'means a person's natural spiritual propensity' (p.32). In addition to these classifications, a number of others are added: 'we have now unearthed a skeleton list of opposing tendencies: speculative-affective; renunciative-affirming; transcendence-immanence; Father-Christo-centrism-Holy Spirit; lax-scrupulous conscience; objective-subjective atonement theory; extrovert-introvert; Arian-Apollinarian; individual-corporate; recluse-gregarious; active-passive; amateur-professional; grim-gay; upper class-lower class.' (p.87) I am not sure that human beings can be categorised in this way but Thornton's discussion is erudite and illuminating. I think his analysis has value even if we do not follow the overall approach.
A syllabus of ascetical knowledge for spiritual directors includes the following four areas: A) Bible and creed; B) Ascetical theology proper; C) Moral theology; D) The schools of prayer (p.49). No wonder Thornton ascribes so much importance to learning! Who is equal to such a task?! It is interesting to note the place given to moral theology in this scheme. In 'The practice of Spiritual Direction' Barry and Connolly divorce spiritual direction from moral guidance. Thornton devotes a whole chapter (his tenth) to moral theology, which he distinguishes from Christian ethics. For him, 'the only valid test is moral theology: progress, whatever its exact nature, means committing less sin and growing more joyfully penitent' (p.94). The integration of moral theology with spiritual direction is to be applauded, as is Thornton's theological approach to morality: 'Man's last end, not the wellbeing of society or the initiation of universal justice, or even love between neighbours, is the one criterion for moral judgment' (p.82). The holistic approach is carried through as he explains that ethics and morality lead one to understand the need for grace - and consequently the practice of prayer (p.83).
The theological vigour of this book is one of its great strengths - as is its faithfulness to Christian tradition. Chapter eight is a particularly impressive section, dealing with the Benedictine regula, the 'three-ways progression', and the use of the Bible. Thornton does not say that the traditional 'purgation-illumination-unity with God' scheme is in need of updating but he offers an alternative biblical pattern: 'covenant - incarnation - incorporation' (pp.56-7). One should perhaps be a little tentative here since the scheme is certainly not set out explicitly in scripture but I think Thornton is right to identify the various themes and it is reasonable to consider their application to the Christian life. In particular, the integration of Old Testament motifs into an understanding of Christian spirituality is to be welcomed. The following (ninth) chapter continues the theological discussion, now addressing 'creed and doctrine'. The doctrine of the Trinity is explored in connection with Christian devotions: 'overstress on transcendence leads to formalism, legalism ... Overstress on immanence produces subjectivism, quasi-mysticism' (p.68). The author's dual concern for theological truth and Christian piety shines through in passages such as this one. The same thoroughgoing grasp of theology and tradition emerges in chapter eleven where the various 'schools' of spirituality are discussed.
In chapter twelve, the issue of the client's progress is discussed. Thornton's view that the spiritual director must discern the progress made by the directee is shared by Guenther (Holy Listening, p.68). Progress is related to morality and the biblical progression of 'covenant-incarnation-incorporation' already discussed. This theme is continued through chapter thirteen in the context of ancient and modern views on progression. I think Thornton completely misses the point of Christian mission when he posits the progression 'evangelism-ecclesiasticism-prayer' (p.107). It seems clear that he sees prayer as the real business of the Christian while witness is just for enthusiastic beginners. When the progression is re-stated, the situation worsens if anything: 'people-ecclesiasticism-God' (p.108). This is an unsatisfactory privileging of worship over caring for people (in whatever way). A healthy Christian piety will integrate loving God and loving our neighbour since these are inseparable commandments.
Chapter thirteen investigates Bruce Reed's The Dynamics of Religion. Thornton is concerned that this section might simply represent the re-iteration of his own convictions in sociological rather than theological terms. I think he is right to be concerned about this and I do not regard it this as the book's most successful section. I think Thornton sometimes displays what one might call a 'Christendom' model with regard to church and the clergy. For example, we read that the 'function of the Church is worship, the priestly function is set within the sanctuary' (p.119) The 'oscillation theory', in Reed's terminology, deals with 'two alternating modes of though, or outlook, or experience. These two alternating modes or poles are variously described, the basic distinction being that between 'religious' and 'secular' activity' (p.111). This is a specious distinction, in my view, and one which can only undermine the spirituality of those not employed as professional clergy - indeed, one wonders how helpful it is for the professionals! A further concept is that of 'process' or 'movement'. In psychology, 'dependence' consists of two kinds' : 'extra-dependence' focussed on someone or something outside oneself and 'intra-dependence' or self-reliance. Thornton discusses the oscillation between 'extra-dependence' and 'intra-dependence' suggesting that such movement is healthy. Another kind of movement is that between the 'manifest' and 'latent' functions of the church. The former refers to 'prayer, worship, liturgy, preaching' whereas the second refers to 'conversion, the unleashing of spiritual power upon the world' (p.117). In Thornton's view, 'The Church's task can be put into sociological terms and translated back into theology to the support and enlightenment of both' (p.118) but it is not clear to me that anything new has been learned beyond the unfamiliar terminology.
Spiritual Direction: a practical introduction is a very valuable contribution to the literature on spiritual direction. The sociological analysis is the weakest section. Thornton's ecclesiology is also questionable, suffering from a Christendom view of sacred space which compartmentalises religion. However, the breadth and depth of his theological understanding is impressive and this is combined with a clear concern for the spirituality of individual Christians. Thornton draws on a rich appreciation of ascetical tradition and offers a helpful context for spiritual direction. His analogies for the directorial relationship are less successful than Guenther's, for example (Holy Listening) and his desire for objectivity and professionalism are questionable. Thornton's biblical revision of the three-ways progression is timely and helpful. Overall, this work is a rich discussion which rewards careful study and will enhance the practice of this important spiritual discipline.
Martin Thornton, Spiritual Direction: a practical introduction, (London: SPCK, 1984)
Martin Thornton (1915-1986) was an Anglican priest, spiritual director, and an author and lecturer on ascetical theology. This work on spiritual direction demonstrates particularly strong emphases on the importance of theological expertise together with professionalism in spiritual direction. Thornton hopes the book will represent 'an extended syllabus covering the range of studies required for competent direction' (p.ix). In chapter one, he cites Anthony Russell's The Clerical Profession which characterises the process of professionalisation in four factors: 'the basis of theoretical, esoteric knowledge'; 'professional educational and social institutions'; internal 'control over recruitment, training, dress and behaviour'; 'its own ethical system'. Thornton's vision of spiritual direction is a world away from Guenther's homely paradigms and one wonders whether the author is not reacting against the clergy's fall in prestige in twentieth century society. While it is certainly important for the church to listen to society's view, I think the Christian faith community must set its own agenda and not be overly concerned to meet what seem to be fundamentally secular criteria of professionalism. Thornton's concerns may be exacerbated by his position of priest in an established church; other denominations and church networks may find it easier to take a sceptical view society's expectations.
In chapter two, entitled 'The ambulance syndrome', Thornton suggests that we must resist the view that spiritual direction is basically therapeutic. Rather, direction is 'the creative cultivation of charismata; the gifts and graces that all have received' (p.10). Despite my criticism of Thornton's concern for professionalism, he is clear on the need for a theological approach to direction. For example, he is willing to accept the straightforward assertion of theological points by directors, even at the risk of paternalism (p.11). Similarly, suffering should not - indeed, cannot - be see in a purely humanistic light but as 'something to be interpreted and creatively redeemed' (p.12). Related to Thornton's concern for professionalism is his desire for objectivity (p.14). Of all the qualities necessary in a director, learning tops the list in Thornton's view. It seems to me that specifying one requirement above the others probably does more harm than good but if this must be done, I would suggest love over learning. It is interesting that Guenther links love with amateurism and suggests that it lies at the heart of direction (Guenther p.145). Such a model of direction bases itself on 1 Corinthians 13 - a more solid foundation than scholarship.
Three analogies are discussed in connection with the directorial relationship. Firstly, the director is 'physician of the soul' (p.24). While the analogy has some merit, I prefer Guenther's midwife imagery because it suggests a more collaborative relationship and one in which something natural is taking place and where the director is less of a primary agent. Analogies which preserve a central place for divine agency are more appropriate. The second analogy is that of askesis. Here the director is like the sports coach who forms a relationship with the athlete: 'a partnership aimed at a common purpose: run to win' (p.27). This is a more satisfactory analogy in which the director is not centre stage. Thirdly, Thornton discusses 'nuptial analogy' - referring to the church as the Bride of Christ. While this imagery clearly has a very solid scriptural basis, Thornton does not spell out exactly how the director fits in - indeed s/he might be something of a 'gooseberry' in this analogy. He wants to convey the 'domestic' aspect of the directorial relationship but I think that Guenther's host analogy is much more coherent and fruitful.
The notion of analysis in spiritual direction is clearly important to Thornton, as demonstrated by his entitling chapter five of this book 'Love on the slab'! The directee (or 'client' in Thornton's more professional terminology) seeking guidance must first be placed 'on a stone cold slab, to be analysed, classified, sorted out and generally pulled to pieces' (p.30). I am not sure this is a helpful image but, to take a positive view of this approach, Thornton wishes to respect the individuality of his client and to understand him or her on a deep level, while doing so in the context of traditional categories within ascetical theology. The client can be understood in terms of two sets of opposing characteristics. The speculative and affective categories 'broadly distinguish the intellectual and the emotional' (p.32). Secondly, clients may fall into 'world-affirming' or 'world-renouncing' classifications (respectively, kataphatic and apophatic). The first of these reflects 'a wide sacramentalism, with a full-blooded acceptance of the human body and its senses: grace perfects nature' (p.35). For world-renouncing clients 'material creatures are not evil, they are a nuisance that get in the way. It is the via negativa' (p.36). In relation to these basic distinctions, Thornton borrows a term from Baron von Hügel - 'attrait' which 'means a person's natural spiritual propensity' (p.32). In addition to these classifications, a number of others are added: 'we have now unearthed a skeleton list of opposing tendencies: speculative-affective; renunciative-affirming; transcendence-immanence; Father-Christo-centrism-Holy Spirit; lax-scrupulous conscience; objective-subjective atonement theory; extrovert-introvert; Arian-Apollinarian; individual-corporate; recluse-gregarious; active-passive; amateur-professional; grim-gay; upper class-lower class.' (p.87) I am not sure that human beings can be categorised in this way but Thornton's discussion is erudite and illuminating. I think his analysis has value even if we do not follow the overall approach.
A syllabus of ascetical knowledge for spiritual directors includes the following four areas: A) Bible and creed; B) Ascetical theology proper; C) Moral theology; D) The schools of prayer (p.49). No wonder Thornton ascribes so much importance to learning! Who is equal to such a task?! It is interesting to note the place given to moral theology in this scheme. In 'The practice of Spiritual Direction' Barry and Connolly divorce spiritual direction from moral guidance. Thornton devotes a whole chapter (his tenth) to moral theology, which he distinguishes from Christian ethics. For him, 'the only valid test is moral theology: progress, whatever its exact nature, means committing less sin and growing more joyfully penitent' (p.94). The integration of moral theology with spiritual direction is to be applauded, as is Thornton's theological approach to morality: 'Man's last end, not the wellbeing of society or the initiation of universal justice, or even love between neighbours, is the one criterion for moral judgment' (p.82). The holistic approach is carried through as he explains that ethics and morality lead one to understand the need for grace - and consequently the practice of prayer (p.83).
The theological vigour of this book is one of its great strengths - as is its faithfulness to Christian tradition. Chapter eight is a particularly impressive section, dealing with the Benedictine regula, the 'three-ways progression', and the use of the Bible. Thornton does not say that the traditional 'purgation-illumination-unity with God' scheme is in need of updating but he offers an alternative biblical pattern: 'covenant - incarnation - incorporation' (pp.56-7). One should perhaps be a little tentative here since the scheme is certainly not set out explicitly in scripture but I think Thornton is right to identify the various themes and it is reasonable to consider their application to the Christian life. In particular, the integration of Old Testament motifs into an understanding of Christian spirituality is to be welcomed. The following (ninth) chapter continues the theological discussion, now addressing 'creed and doctrine'. The doctrine of the Trinity is explored in connection with Christian devotions: 'overstress on transcendence leads to formalism, legalism ... Overstress on immanence produces subjectivism, quasi-mysticism' (p.68). The author's dual concern for theological truth and Christian piety shines through in passages such as this one. The same thoroughgoing grasp of theology and tradition emerges in chapter eleven where the various 'schools' of spirituality are discussed.
In chapter twelve, the issue of the client's progress is discussed. Thornton's view that the spiritual director must discern the progress made by the directee is shared by Guenther (Holy Listening, p.68). Progress is related to morality and the biblical progression of 'covenant-incarnation-incorporation' already discussed. This theme is continued through chapter thirteen in the context of ancient and modern views on progression. I think Thornton completely misses the point of Christian mission when he posits the progression 'evangelism-ecclesiasticism-prayer' (p.107). It seems clear that he sees prayer as the real business of the Christian while witness is just for enthusiastic beginners. When the progression is re-stated, the situation worsens if anything: 'people-ecclesiasticism-God' (p.108). This is an unsatisfactory privileging of worship over caring for people (in whatever way). A healthy Christian piety will integrate loving God and loving our neighbour since these are inseparable commandments.
Chapter thirteen investigates Bruce Reed's The Dynamics of Religion. Thornton is concerned that this section might simply represent the re-iteration of his own convictions in sociological rather than theological terms. I think he is right to be concerned about this and I do not regard it this as the book's most successful section. I think Thornton sometimes displays what one might call a 'Christendom' model with regard to church and the clergy. For example, we read that the 'function of the Church is worship, the priestly function is set within the sanctuary' (p.119) The 'oscillation theory', in Reed's terminology, deals with 'two alternating modes of though, or outlook, or experience. These two alternating modes or poles are variously described, the basic distinction being that between 'religious' and 'secular' activity' (p.111). This is a specious distinction, in my view, and one which can only undermine the spirituality of those not employed as professional clergy - indeed, one wonders how helpful it is for the professionals! A further concept is that of 'process' or 'movement'. In psychology, 'dependence' consists of two kinds' : 'extra-dependence' focussed on someone or something outside oneself and 'intra-dependence' or self-reliance. Thornton discusses the oscillation between 'extra-dependence' and 'intra-dependence' suggesting that such movement is healthy. Another kind of movement is that between the 'manifest' and 'latent' functions of the church. The former refers to 'prayer, worship, liturgy, preaching' whereas the second refers to 'conversion, the unleashing of spiritual power upon the world' (p.117). In Thornton's view, 'The Church's task can be put into sociological terms and translated back into theology to the support and enlightenment of both' (p.118) but it is not clear to me that anything new has been learned beyond the unfamiliar terminology.
Spiritual Direction: a practical introduction is a very valuable contribution to the literature on spiritual direction. The sociological analysis is the weakest section. Thornton's ecclesiology is also questionable, suffering from a Christendom view of sacred space which compartmentalises religion. However, the breadth and depth of his theological understanding is impressive and this is combined with a clear concern for the spirituality of individual Christians. Thornton draws on a rich appreciation of ascetical tradition and offers a helpful context for spiritual direction. His analogies for the directorial relationship are less successful than Guenther's, for example (Holy Listening) and his desire for objectivity and professionalism are questionable. Thornton's biblical revision of the three-ways progression is timely and helpful. Overall, this work is a rich discussion which rewards careful study and will enhance the practice of this important spiritual discipline.
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